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NATURE, PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT OF SALINE AND ALKALI SOILS

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AUTHORS: G.L. MALIWAL AND L.L. SOMANI

PUBLISHING YEAR: 2020

EDITION: 2nd

ISBN: 9788183215060

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ABOUT THE BOOK

The salt affected soils and saline waters are widespread in several countries of the world and present a serious problem of immense practical importance for crop production because of their peculiar inhospitable characteristics for plant growth despite inherent potentialities. Faced with the dilemma of salinity, for a long time, mankind considered salt affected soils as uncultivable wastelands and confined their energies to better soils. The need for extending cultivation on such hitherto lying barren lands on account of increasing demographic pressure and limited availability of good land for agricultural use, is urgently called for. Only a thorough knowledge of management techniques will go a long way in optimal utilization of such lands.

This book contains chapters on various aspects of salt-affected soils. It includes information on origin, distribution, classification and diagnosis of salt affected soils besides techniques of successful crop production on such soils. The technology and concepts of saline water irrigation are also sufficiently developed for sustained production. An attempt has been made in this monograph to consolidate the available information on the quality of irrigation water and technology for irrigation with saline water. It also includes information on drainage for salt affected soils, osmoregulatory mechanism in plants. The books is intended for students, research workers and planner to acquaint them with the problems confronted in the successful crop production in salt-affected soils and use of saline waters for irrigation.The book incorporates the contents based on new ICAR syllabi.

CONTENT

NO. TITLE PAGE
PREFACE 3
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 8
ABOUT THE BOOK 19
1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 21
1.1 Introduction 21
1.2 Historical Development 22
1.2.1 History of Soil Salinity 23
1.2.2 History of Secondary Salinisation 23
1.2.3 Reh Committee Report 25
1.2.4 Reclamation Experiments 26
1.2.4.1 Punjab 26
1.2.4.2 Black Soil Region 27
1.2.1.3 Uttar Pradesh 30
1.2.5 UP Usar and Land Reclamation Committee 31
1.2.6 Research on Reclamation of Salty Lands in the Post-Independent Period 32
1.2.6.1 Seminars         32
1.2.6.2 ICAR Schemes 32
1.2.7 Planning Commission Report on Waste Lands 33
1.2.8 NEDCO Investigation in Gujarat 33
1.2.9 USAID-INDIAN Team recommendations 33
1.2.10 UNDP Investigations in Haryana 35
1.2.11 Salinity Problem in Rajasthan 35
1.2.12 Need for Reclamation 36
1.2.13 Degradation of Environment 36
References 37
2  NOMENCLATURE AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 39

 
2.1 Nomenclature 39
2.1.1 USA 39
2.1.2 Russia 39
2.1.3 Hungary  
2.2 Regional Nomenclature – India 41
2.3 Geographical Distribution 43
2.3.1 Asia 46
2.3.2 Afric 48
2.3.3 Australia 48
2.3.4 Europe 48
2.3.5 North America 49
2.3.6 South America 49
References 49
3 ORIGIN, NATURE, EXTENT AND FORMATION 50
3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 Origin 51
3.2.1 Soil Weathering Process 51
3.2.2 Irrigation with Inadequate Drainage 51
3.2.3 Irrigation with Salt-laden Underground water

 

 51
3.2.4 Shallow Watertable 51
3.2.5 Fossil Salts 52
3.2.6 Ocean 53
3.2.7 Chemical Fertilizers and Waste Materials 54
3.2.8 Seepage 54
3.2.9 Origin and Accumulation of Salinity in Different Regions 54
3.2.10 Arid Tract  56
3.2.11 Remnant Ocean and Marine Formations as a Possible Source 55
3.2.12 Indogangetic Plains  
3.2.13 Aeolian Theory 56
3.2.14 Subterranean Source 57
3.2.15 Rainfall 57
3.2.16 Central and Peninsular India 57
3.3 Nature 59
3.3.1 Saline Soils 59
3.3.2 Alkali Soils 60
3.3.3 Visual Characters 61
3.4 Extent 62
3.4.1 Global 62
3.4.2 Australia 63
3.4.3 Egypt 64
3.4.4 Hungary 64
3.4.5 USSR 64
3.4.6 North America 65
3.4.7 Meso-America 65
3.4.8 South America 65
3.4.9 India 66
3.5 Formation 70
3.5.1  Salinization 71
3.5.2 Alkalization 73
3.5.3 Human Role in The Development of Soil Salinity 76
References  
4 DIAGNOSIS, MONITORING AND DETERMINATION 78
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Soil Sampling 78
4.3 Sampling Techniques 79
4.3.1 Judgement Sampling 80
4.3.2 Sample Random Sampling 80
4.3.3 Stratified Random Sampling 80
4.3.4 Systematic Sampling 80
4.4 Selection of Sample Technique 80
4.5 Sampling Parameters 81
4.5.1 Soil Salinity 81
4.5.2 Alkali Appraisal 85
4.5.3 Diagnosing Salinity and Alkalinity in The Field 87
4.6 Laboratory Measurement 90
4.6.1 Soil sampling Handling and Sub-sampling 90
4.6.2 Sampling of Irrigation Water 91
4.6.3 Chemical Analysis 91
4.6-3.1 Electrical Conductivity in Saturated Soil Taste 92
4.6.3.2 Electrical Conductivity in Saturation Paste Extract 92
4.6.3.3 Soluble Cations and Anions 93
4.6.3.4 Soluble Boron 93
4.6.3.5 Lime and Gypsum 93
4.6.3.6 Exchangeable cations and CEC 94
4.6.4 Physical Measurements 94
4.6.4.1 Aggregate Stability and Size Distribution 94
4.6.4.2 Crust Formation 94
4.6.4.3 Infiltration Rate 95
4.6.4.4 Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity 95
4.6.4.5 Density and Porosity 95
4.6.5 Plants 96
References 97
5 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES 98
5.1 Classification of Salt Affected Soils 98
5.1.1 The USA System 98
5.1.2 The USSR System 99
5.1.2.1 Solonchak 99
5.1.2.2 Solonetz 100
5.1.3 The FAO-UNESCO System 100
5.1.3.1 Solonchak Soils 100
5.1.3.2 Solonetz Soils 100
5.1.4 Hie European System 101
5.1-4.1 Saline Soils 101
5.1.4.2 Sodic Soils 102
5.1.5 The Australian System 102
5.1.6 The Indian System 102
5.2 Properties of Salt Affected Soils 105
5.2.1 Physical Properties 105
5.2.2 Effective Soil Depth 105
5.2.1.2 Bulk Density 106
5.2.1.3 Pore Space Distribution 106
5.2.1.4 Soil Tilth 106
5.2.1.5 Crust Formation 106
5.2.1.6 Dispersion Coefficient 106
5.2.1.7 Clay Swelling and Dispersion 107
5.2.1.8 Shear Strength 108
5.2.2 Soil Water Relationship 108
5.2.2.1 Infiltration Rate 108
5.2.2.2 Permeability 108
5.2.2.3 Soil Water Availability 109
5.2.3 Mineralogical Characteristics 109
5.2.3.1 Clay M inerals 109
5.2.3.2 Kankar 110
5.2.3.3 Gypsum 110
5.2.4 Hydrological Properties 110
5.2.5 Chemical Properties 111
5.2.5.1 Soil Reaction (pH) 111
5.2.5.2 Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) 112
5.2.5.3 Salinity (Soluble Salts) 114
5.2.5.4 Macronutrients 116
5.2.5.5 Micronutrients 117
5.2.5.6 Toxic Elements 117
5.2.6 Biological Characteristics 119
5.2.6.1 Organic Matter 119
5.2.6.2 Microorganisms 120
References 123
6 EFFECT OF SALT ON SOILS 124
6.1  Effect of Salts on Clay Swelling and Dispersion 124
6.1.1  Sodium and Calcium Distribution in Smectites 124
6.1.2  Swelling 125
6.1.3  Dispersion 125
6.1.3.1  Dispersability of Clay Minerals 126
6.1.3.2  Dispersability of Soils 127
6.2  Permeability 128
6.3  Infiltration 128
6.4  Depositional Crust 130
6.5 Water Transmission Characteristics 130
6.5.1 Effect of Exchangeable Cations 130
6.5.2 Effect of Electrolyte Concentration 132
6.6  Effect of pH 132
References 133
7 EFFECT OF SALTS ON PLANTS 134
7.1 Plant Response to Saline and Sodic Conditions          134
7.1.1 Introduction 134
7.1.2 Halophytes and Glycophytes 134
7.1.2.1 Halophytes 134
7.1.2.2 Glycophytes 137
7.2 Factors Affecting Salt Tolerance 138
7.2.1 Plant Factors 138
7.2.1.1 Growth Stages 138
7.2.1.2 Crop Variety 138
7.2.2 Soil Factors 138
7.2.2.1 Soil Fertility 138
7.2.2.2 Soil Moisture 139
7.2.2.3 Soil Aeration 140
7.2.3 Environmental Factors 140
7.2.3.1 Temperature 140
7.2.3.2 Rainfall 140
7.2.3.3 Air Humidity 141
7.2.3.4 Air Pollution 141
7.2.3.5 Radiation 141
7.2.4 Irrigation Practices 141
7.3 Crop Response to Salinity 141
7.3.1 Germination 142
7.3.2 Growth and Development 144
7.3.3 Flowering and Grain/Fruit Setting 144
7.3.4 Plant Diseases 146
7.3.5 Quality of Produce 146
7.3.6 Yield 148
7.4 Rating of Crop Salt Tolerance 149
7.4.1 Criteria 149
7.4.2 Absolute Plant Growth or Yield 149
7.4.3 Relative Growth or Yield 150
7.4.4 Ratings 150
7.5 Tolerance of Herbaceous Crops 152
7.6 Salt Tolerance of Woody Crops 155
7.7 Salt Tolerance of Ornamentals 157
7.8 Limitations for Ratings of Salt Tolerance 161
7.9 Crop Response to Sodicity 162
7.9.1 Growth Stage 162
7.9.2 Yield 163
7.10 Plant Response to Specific Ions and Elements 164
7.10.1 Sodium 164
7.10.2 Chloride 166
7.10.3 Bicarbonate 170
7.10.4 Boron 170
References 176
8 PHYSIOLOGY OF SALT TOLERANCE 178
8.1 Mechanism of Salt Injury in Plants 178
8.1.1 Interrelationship Between Osmotic and Specific Ion Effects 179
8.1.2 Osmotic Effects 180
8.1.3 Specific Ion Effects 182
8.1.4 Nutritional Effects 182
8.1.5 Toxic Effects 183
8.2 Mechanism of Salt Resistance 185
8.2.1 Salt Avoidance Mechanism 185
8.3 Mechanism of Salt Tolerance 185
8.3.1 Osmoregulation 188
8.3.2 Selectivity of Ion transport 188
8.3.3 Osmoregulation with Inorganic Solutes 189
8.3.4 Osmoregulation with Organic Solutes 190
8.3.5 Glycinebetaine 191
8.3.6 Proline 191
8.3.7 Organic Acids, Sugars and Polyols 191
8.4 Metabolic Processes in Relation to Salinity 192
8.4.1 Salts and Respiration 192
8.4.2 Salts and Photosynthesis 194
8.4.3 Salts and Chloroplasts 195
8.4.4 Salts and Chlorophyll 196
8.4.5 Carbohydrate Metabolism 196
8.4.6 Nitrogen Metabolism 198
8.4.7 Protein Metabolism 198
8.4.8 Nucleic Acid Metabolism 199
8.4.9 Hormone Metabolism 200
8.4.10 Salts and Enzyme Activity 201
8.5 Inducement and Increase in Salt Tolerance of Crops 202
8.5.1 Inducement of Salt Tolerance 202
8.5.2 Increase in Salt Tolerance 203
8.5.2.1 Breeding for Salt Tolerance 203
8.5.2.1 Modern Techniques 204
References 205
9 SALTS AND PLANT MINERAL NUTRITION 211
9.1 Salinity and Nutritional Effects 211
9.1.1 Salinity and Nitrogen 211
9.1.2 Salinity and Phosphorus 212
9.1.3 Salt and Potassium 212
9.1.4 Salinity, Calcium and Magnesium 213
9.1.5 Salinity and Micronutrients 213
9.2 Alkalinity and Nutritional Effect 214
9.2.1 Alkalinity and Cations 215
9.2.2 Alkalinity and Micronutrients 216
9.2.3 Alkalinity and Nitrogen 216
9.2.4 Alkalinity and Phosphorus 216
9.3.1 Salinity Fertility Interactions 217
9.3.2 Alkalinity Fertility Interactions 219
References 220
10

 

 

 RECLAMATION 223
10.1 Reclamation of Saline Soils 223
10.1.1 Scrapping 223
10.1.2 Flushing 223
10.1.3 Leaching 223
10.1.4 The Leaching Requirement (LR) 227
10.1.4.1 LR as a Function of Quality of Irrigation Water 227
10.1.4.2 LR as a Function of Water Consumptive Use 228
10.1.4.3 LR and Drainage Capacity 228
10.1.5 Factors Affecting Leaching Requirement 229
10.1.5.1 Rainfall 229
10.1.5.2 Salt Precipitation 230
10.1.5.3 Salt Uptake by Plant 231
10.1.5.4 Salinity of Surface Layers 231
10.1.5.5 Method and Frequency of Irrigation 232
10.1.6 Calculation of the Leaching Requirement 232
10.1.7 Time of Leaching 239
10.1.8 Depth of Reclamation 239
10.1.9 How Much to Leach 239
10.1.10 Cropping During Leaching 240
10.1.11 Limitations 240
10.1.12 Drainage 240
10.2 Reclamation of Sodium Affected Soils 246
10.2.1 Concept and Principles 246
10.2.2 Chemical Amendments 247
10.2.2.1 Calcium Supplying Amendments 248
10.2.2.2 Acid Formers 258
10.2.2.3 Industrial Wastes 264
10.2.2.4 Organic Amendments 266
10.2.2.5 Electrical Methods 268
10.2.2.6 Thermal Methods 268
References 268
11 MANAGEMENT 271
11.1 Management of Saline Soils 271
11.1.1 Physical Management 272
11.1.2 Cultural Practices 273
11.1.2.1 Proper Seed Placement 273
11.1.2.2 Method of Raising Plants 274
11.1.2.3 Row Spacing/Plant Density 274
11.1.3 Crop Factor 274
11.1.4 Water Management 276
11.1.4.1 Leaching Management 276
11.1.4.2 Pre-irrigation 276
11.1.4.3 Method of Water Application 276
11.1.4.4 Irrigation Interval 277
11.2 Management of Sodic Soils 277
11.2.1 Cultural Practices 277
11.2.1.1 Land Levelling and Shaping 277
11.2.1.2 Plant Population 277
11.2.1.3 Age of Seedlings 278
11.2.1.4 Green manuring 278
11.2.1.5 Selection of crops 278
11.2.1.6 Continuous cropping 278
11.2.1.7 Water Management 280
11.2.1.8 Drainage 280
11.2.2 Irrigation 280
11.3 Fertility Management in Salt Affected Soils 281
11.3.1 Nitrogen 281
11.3.2 Phosphorus 284
11.3.3 Zinc 286
11.3.4 Iron 287
11.3.5 Fertilizer Management 287
11.3.5.1 Choice of Fertilizers 287
11.3.5.2 Time, Method and Doses 289
References 291
12 ALTERNATE LAND USES 292
12.1 Role of Grasses and Trees in Reclamation 292
12.2 Afforestation 293
12.2.1 Afforestation of Saline Soils 293
12.2.2 Afforestation of Alkali Soils 298
12.3 Agroforestry 304
12.3.1 Silvipastoral System 304
12.3.2 Silvi-agriculture Model 304
12.3.3 Silvi-horti-pasture Model 304
12.4 Fruit Crops 305
12.5 Aromatic Plants/Medicinal Plants 305
12.5.1 Palmarosa 305
12.5.2 Lemon grass 305
12.5.3 Vetiver 305
12.5.4 Medicinal Plants 306
12.5.5 Periwinkle 306
12.5.6 Egrot 306
12.5.7 Egyptian Henbane 306
References 307
13 QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER 308
13.1 Introduction 308
13.2 Nature of Soluble Salts 312
13.2.1 Origin of Salts in Water 313
13.3 Quality of Irrigation Water 313
13.3.1 Source of Irrigation 315
13.3.1.1 Rain Water 315
13.3.1.2 Surface Water 315
13.3.1.3 Underground water 316
13.3.1.4  Sea Water 317
13.3.1.5 Waste Waters 318
13.3.1.6 Fluorine in Irrigation Water 321
13.3.1.7 Seasonal Variation in Water Quality 321
13.4 Criteria’s for Irrigation Waters 321
13.4.1 Salinity Hazard 321
13.4.2 Sodicity Hazard 321
13.4.2.1 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) 321
13.4.2.2 Adjusted SAR 330
13.4.3.3 Adjusted RNa 334
13.4.3.4 Alkalinity Hazard (Residual Sodium Carbonate – RSC) 334
13.4.4 Specific Ion Effects 336
13.4.4.1 Sodium 336
13.4.4.2 Calcium 337
13.4.4.3 Magnesium 337
13.4.4.4 Potassium and Nitrate 337
13.4.4.5 Chloride and Sulphate 337
13.4.4.6 Boron 338
13.4.4.7 Lithium 338
13.4.4.8 Silica 339
13.5 Water Quality Classification 340
13.5.1 EC and SAR 341
13.5.2 EC, SAR and RSC 344
13.5.3 Permeability Hazard 346
13.6 Factors Affecting Suitability of Irrigation Water 351
13.6.1 Chemical Composition of Irrigation Water 351
13.6.2 Soil Type 351
13.6.3 Salt Tolerance Behaviour of the Crop 351
13.6.4 Climate 351
13.6.5 Management 352
13.7 Cation Exchange Equilibria 352
13.7.1 Ion Exchange Equation 353
13.7.2 Empirical Expressions 353
13.7.3 Kinetically Derived Expressions 353
13.7.4 Mass Action Type Equation 354
13.7.5 Diffused double layer equation 355
13.7.6 Applicability of Ion Exchange Equations in Soil Systems 355
13.7.7 Modified SA and SEQ 356
13.7.8 Modified CA and CE 356
13.8 Management Practices in Irrigation With Saline Water 358
13.8.1 Management Principles 358
13.8.2 Management Practices 359
13.8.2.1 Leaching for Salinity Control 359
13.8.2.2 Farm Irrigation Management 360
13.8.2.3 Crop Management 363
13.8.2.4 Cultural Practices 368
13.8.2.5 Inducement of Salt Tolerance 371
13.8.2.6 Chemical Management 371
References 376
14 COASTAL SALINE SOILS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 380
14.1 Introduction 380
14.2 Extent 380
14.3 Characteristics of Coastal Areas 381
14.3.1 Physiography and Relief 381
14.3.2 Climatic Conditions 381
14.3.3 Groundwater Table Behaviour 383
14.3.4 Saline Soils 384
14.3.5 Acid Sulphate Soils 385
14.3.6 Other Soil Problems 385
14.3.7 Hydrology 385
14.4 Development of Salinity in Coastal Lands 386
14.5 Management of Coastal Saline Soils 386
14.5.1 Soil Management 386
14.5.2 Engineering Management 387
14.5.2.1 Height of Embankments 387
14.5.2.2 Structural Design of Sea Dikes 387
14.5.2.3 Embankment Construction in India 388
14.5.2.4 Other Activities 388
14.5.2.5 Sluice gates 389
14.6 Water Management 389
14.6.1 Surface Drainage 389
14.6.1.1 Excess Rainwater 389
14.6.1.2 Drainage of Rice Fields 389
14.6.1.3 Critical Period of Drainage 390
14.6.2 Storage and Recycling of Rain Water 390
14.6.3 Tapping the Creeks 391
14.6.4 Use of Ground Water for Crops 391
14.7 Crop Management 393
14.7.1 Cropping System 393
14.7.2 Farming System 393
14.7.3 Agronomic and Culture Practices 393
14.7.4 Improved irrigation practices 394
14.7.5 Mulching             394
14.8 Fertility Management 394
14.8.1 Nitrogen 394
14.8.2 Phosphorus 394
14.8.3 Potassium 394
14.8.4 Micronutrients 395
14.8.5 Alternative sources 395
References 395
ABBREVIATIONS 396

 

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. G.L. Maliwal saw the light of the day on 16th November, 1942, During the last 38 years of active research and education Dr. Maliwal has made valuable contribution in the field of irrigation water quality, soil salinity, utilization of waste water in agricultural, water management and dry land farming.

Before retirement, he was principal Investigator of the project on “use of urban and industrial effluents in agriculture”, GAU, Anand Centre financed by World Bank. Dr. As a devoted researcher, authentic writer and critical reviewer, Dr. Maliwal has 210 original research papers, books, bulletins and popular articles in national and international journals to his credit. He has made more than 80 recommendations for farming community and got Sardar Patel Agricultural Research Award” for 1998-99 by Government of Gujarat, Gandhinagar.

Dr. L. L. Somani Retired Director Resident Instructions, MPUAT udaipur has over 400 papers published in National and International Journals/Symposia, etc. and many number of books to his credit in different disciplines of Agriculture. He held different position in MPUAT and has spreaded highly innovative ideas and programmes for the development of Agriculture.

Additional information

AUTHOR/AUTHORS

G. L. MALIWAL, L.L. Somani
PAGES

396
BINDING

Hard Back
PUBLICATION YEAR

2020

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